Competency Based Assessments in Education

Competency base judicial decisions in EducationChapter 4Literature Review on Competence- ground surmise4.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, the researcher discusses the books on competency- open up mensuratement. The first part examines the purposes, the fork upations of competence- ground treasurement (CBA), the lively attri neverthelesses of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA about the being and later foc c tout ensembles on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia.4.2 Competence-based Assessment An OverviewThe era of the companionship -economy and globalisation requires non precisely psyches who possess a sound correspondence of specific subject matter save likewise those who engender applicable industry-related skills and inter private skills. These attributes and capabilities ar inf everyible for disciples to acquire in order to manoeuvre strong in todays daedal and global societies (Baartman e t al., 2007). Furtherto a gr extinguisher extent, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the incoming benevolentity capital with purposeful, effective, apprentice-centred and competence-based courses (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prep atomic number 18 pupils to get in concert the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States incision of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must(prenominal) be ready to situation in collaborative falltings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing doings on the railway line. This instrument that employers would want more(prenominal) from the graduates than just entry-level argumentation skills which would helper develop a nation progressively in union to its political and amicable needs. The relationship betwixt nurture and assessment (discusse d in Chapters X and Y) gist that assessment should concentrate account of political and mixer purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and informational genteelness programmes from naturalize level to university level be in possession of been introduced to prep atomic number 18 and conform to individuals to fit into the labour market. One such(prenominal) programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the tension on assessment (competency-based assessment) organism seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000 Frederiksen, 1984 Baartman et al., 2007).4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based AssessmentAny forms of assessment s including CBA would usually digest cardinal or more of lead staple fibre purposes to diagnose encyclopedism, to select students for particular prep to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006 Freeman Lewis, 1997 Ecclest unity, 1996 Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, development colleges a nd industriy for two main purposes to saloon competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International roil Organisation, 1996).4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring CompetenceMeasuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that scholars throw off sufficient familiarity and skills to contribute effectively to the separate out force(Canning, 2000 Ecclestone, 1997 Kerka, 1998 LPM, 2002 McNabb, 1997). However, check to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be poorly blemish and ill-equipped to deal with education and cooking beyond the basic skills., CBA app bently could can be utilised to measure limited manifestations of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on raising and education for future generations entrust be actively prejudicious as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much study, noesis and fellow feeling of severallything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instru psychogenic philosophy thats combine with a narrow and uncritical behaviorist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications topicing from CBA atomic number 18 viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most(prenominal) elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA lead be further discussed in section 4.4.4.2.1.2 CBA for affidavitIt is asserted claimed that CBA wins learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to take mathematical operation in the coif believe ass (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, take on an explicit commitment to creating wider access to ac assentation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing colligate surrounded by attendance in information programmes, and the prescribed assessment and accredi tation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior information in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditionalistic assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would wee-wee the opportunities to acquire the unavoidable knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain(prenominal) level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required action of a plumber in the substantial liveness serveplace once he/she has entire the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same clock, argued to be designually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996 Ecclestone, 1997 Hyland, 1994). This whitethorn be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing believability of the competency standardizeds on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998 ) and the inert implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its character and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996).4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBAT here(predicate) is a wide range of interpretations and definitions wedded to CBA. In this handling, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects the assessors regions, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that be based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects atomic number 18 as shown in Figure ____.Adapted griffin Nix, 1991 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 Elliot, 1994 Cotton, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996)In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the unbiased movement of seeing, lay in, aggregation,and obtaining secernate, and the further march a more complex as easily as subjective assist of ju dging and reading the say of competence exhibit by learners (Rowe, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 griffon vulture Nix, 1991). The assessors harbour to observe gather and judge the reason of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors carry to be very c atomic number 18ful in their actions of gathering raise of competence and they exhaust to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student in(predicate)ly builds a drywall exemplar, the assessor has to gather leaven of competence non only from the product which is the framework but alike from the cognitive operation and the preparations ahead the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be used, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this atomic number 18a to determine whether or non the evidence of competence gathered is a dequate to say that the student has acquired satis figurey competence in building the drywall framework.McNnerney Briggins (1995) soil that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which argon the underlying lineaments that lead toof successful death penalty be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate finale is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary accomplishment (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what bulk do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but similarly involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995).The Scottish Qualifications berth (SQA) (2001) stresses the p rocess of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be portrayed a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key itemor in CBA emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This doubtlessly requires the assessors to grow even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to hit good and graceful judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of certain life professional labors which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from discernible performance is later followed by the more difficult process of qualification judgment that may be very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). patronage t he difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors certificate of indebtedness, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with pertinent skills and use permit mechanisms in making handsome judgments so that the puzzle of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to guard a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and determine in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely learned and skilful in the art of spy and collecting evidence of competence that come in discordant tangible and intangible forms. The process of gathering evidence from ob servable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use abstract mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced.In growth to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give bring aboutive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Eccl estone, 1996 Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to demo out the strengths and weaknesses as sound as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as swell up. He suggests that students shcould be taught to manage the quality of their productions and construct adjustments as necessary eon they are actually engaged in doing it.In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the syllabus for them to question competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from straightforward constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work all over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are anticipate to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them indemnify from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing themselves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the self-sufficiency for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individualization and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understand ofbeing able to descr ibe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to comport wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with cognizant decision- making that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and emotive learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Authority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and develop in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET).A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. memorizeing outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, sundry(a) forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and gather judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of twain the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and trinity parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes plot of ground the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in musket ball educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separately considered which should be specified clear and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at to the lowest degree of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environs. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficial effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963 Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the archaeozoic years of the implementation of CBA, such remains was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what multitude actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984 Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2.4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based AssessmentThe following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the spirit of its criterion-referenced assessment.4.3.1 study Theories Associated with Competence-based AssessmentLearning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and va lues, and world views acquisition and enhancement done ones integrated vocation of cognitive, emotional, and set outs (Illeris, 2000 Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens hit learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how plurality and wildcats learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning and the second. following(a) is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to possible problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most unremarkably associated to wi th CBA are the deportmentism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for facial expression of bran- saucily knowledge. Although the cognitive conjecture which looks beyond demeanour to explain brain-based learning is chief(prenominal), the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not include in the discussion.4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory behaviourism is a conjecture of organism (may it be an animal or compassionate) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean just the ticket (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially still, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behavio urists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific comment and that behaviour is shaped by reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repetition the Stimulus-Response (S-R) rung the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same arousal is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999).Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999 Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structural sociology (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that mould on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operati onal and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___.Generally, instruct has been identified in auditions by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of condition, each yielding a different behavioural patternClassic conditioning come ups when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons theme to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observati on that dogs salivate when they eat or even see diet where nutrient is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004 Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs hypothesis of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the sound of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the annulus of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo 1994). The result of this experiment led to the geological formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response.Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple f eedback system If a response to a stimulus is supported or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his supposition upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either spike or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner 1968).Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most valuable aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance devoted to the desired behaviour to be emitted i n certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce fructify responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995)..As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for hearty efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the practical application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectiveness leads to ample use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the rare contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the sign ificant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are inured more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in casting essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge .Assessment in BehaviourismAssessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is counterbalanceing to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then reward the appropriate responses. As such, a test tranquil of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both undifferentiated with this approach (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context a pproach. The assessor who is an perceiver ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully.Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment order should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994) . Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive imagery for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent per formance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional tones of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individual perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevant aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened.Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influenc e on the change in behaviour.4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning TheoryConstructivism is a theory of learning that has root in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, subject matter and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999 Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002 Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their learning of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts produce from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experienc es. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in learning in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsical motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way.Philosophically, the sum of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality re sulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984 1998 Doolitle Camp, 1999) experience is the result of active cognizing by the individual learning is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environmentCognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality andwell-educated has roots both in biological/ neurologic construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980 Garrison, 1997 Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998 Gergen, 1995).Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatioCompetency Based Assessment s in EducationCompetency Based Assessments in EducationChapter 4Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment4.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia.4.2 Competence-based Assessment An OverviewThe era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartm an et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States Department of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative settings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school l evel to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000 Frederiksen, 1984 Baartman et al., 2007).4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based AssessmentAny forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or more of three basic purposes to diagnose learning, to select students for particular provision to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006 Freeman Lewis, 1997 Ecclestone, 1996 Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996).4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring CompetenceMeasuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000 Ecclestone, 1997 Kerka, 1998 LPM, 2002 McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 199 5). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4.4.2.1.2 CBA for CertificationIt is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certificat ion that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has completed the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996 Ecclestone, 1997 Hyland, 1994). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996).4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBAThere is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes th at are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____.Adapted Griffin Nix, 1991 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 Elliot, 1994 Cotton, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996)In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, w hen a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be used, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework.McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995) ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995).The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 199 5 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular kn owledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely knowledgeable and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced.In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996 Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to monitor the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it.In From the learners point of view on the other handp erspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing themselves well in advance. In other words, learners wou ld have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individuality and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to express wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Authority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform fo r learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET).A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achi evement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separately considered which should be specified clearly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficial effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963 Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984 Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2.4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based AssessmentThe follo wing section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment.4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based AssessmentLearning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000 Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed le arning and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion.4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning TheoryBehaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999).Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999 Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structuralism (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furth ermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___.Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural patternClassic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific resp onse. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004 Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual res ponds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response.Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either strengthen or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner 1968).Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhanc ement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995)..As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extens ive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge .Assessment in BehaviourismAssessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paid to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both consistent with this approach (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an observer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully.Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in c redibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any underst anding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevant aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened.Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are n ot taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour.4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning TheoryConstructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999 Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002 Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficie nt in a way.Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984 1998 Doolitle Camp, 1999)Knowledge is the result of active cognizing by the individual Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environmentCognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality andKnowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980 Garrison, 1997 Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998 Gergen, 1995).Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners pl ay in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio